Theories of Ethnicity and Nationalism Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Theories of Ethnicity and Nationalism - Essay Example She writes: â€Å"The two postwar periods of intense affirmation of ethnic categories in personal, social, cultural and political life were both unexpected. Indeed, in some quarters, re-attachment to the culture and community of birth was seen as a mistake of history. This is because of four distinct but, in this respect, converging processes which marked the world order immediately after the end of World War II: first, the process of de-colonisation and development in Asia and Africa; second, the process of integration in Europe; third, the process of expansion and entrenchment of Soviet communism; and fourth, the creation, in 1945, of the United Nations out of the ashes of the League of Nations. These great transformations were expected to create social conditions in which ethnicity and its related phenomenon, nationalism, would be superseded by more 'modern', universalistic, rational, civic or class-based forms of human identification, striving and association and by internationa l or transnational forms of human governance.† (Epstein, 2009) Following this, the important factors to note in post-war concepts of ethnicity are that nationalism and ethnicity had joined with fascism in the regimes of Germany, Italy, and Japan and this is largely credited with the aggression that fueled WWII. There is a perceived inherent danger of fanaticism in the fusion of identity politics and nationalism with ethnicity that led many to conclude that such belief was a â€Å"mistake of history†. (Epstein, 2009) However, in each instance where Leoussie cites popular expectation academically and popularly for a rejection of ethnicity in favor of international institutions or class-based structures of identity, historical evolution has proved that it did not in fact occur as expected. From this, Leoussie suggests that there are a number of â€Å"backlashes,† that occur in post-war academia that transform the way theories of ethnicity are posited in sociology pa rticularly, but also in related fields of anthropology, history, linguistics, psychology, etc. The four converging processes cited by Leoussie in the post-war era contain innumerable examples where theories of ethnicity and nationalism were proved false by subsequent historical development. In the first instance of de-colonisation in Asia and Africa, it is inevitable that liberation process and creation of new national identity would give birth to a stronger patriotic spirit in the indigenous population. However, many of the colonial areas were Western border constructions and the ethnic mix of the indigenous population contained innumerable different tribal groups, for example as in India, leading to further fragmentation of national identity on ethnic and religious lines, as in the partition of Pakistan and Bangladesh. The Socialist and Communist elements of national liberation struggles clearly expected the new identity to be based on class-consciousness and not ethnicity, and th is is replicated in the Soviet example in which innumerable ethnic minorities were repressed. Leoussie cites European integration post-war as a process despite the fact that the continent was divided during the Cold War because the division was on the ideological grounds of communism vs. capitalism rather than based on traditional

Job cover letter (job application letter) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Job cover letter (job application letter) - Essay Example Diamond and Cessna and can perform 3 different types of Cessna inspections at work within a team in a safety manner. My A&P mechanic knowledge and 3 different types of engine overhaul experiences closely matches your job requirements and A&P mechanic tasks. I can easily handle the job requirements i.e. perform aircraft maintenance and/or repairs in accordance with HAECO Airframe Services, FAA, and customer standards of quality. In a short period, I have shown my ability to various work experience assisting with maintenance operations control with a chief mechanic for flight schools Cessna. I have knowledge in design techniques, knowledge of materials and A&P mechanic tasks typical services like annual and 100-hour inspection, and engine overhauls. I can take up any duties and complete teamwork within future workers. I would be interested in fall position and it would be an honor to work at your company. I welcome the opportunity to discuss any possible mechanic position with you. Am looking forward to a positive consideration. Please feel free to call me at ******** or by email at *********edu. I have hereby attached my CV. Thank you in

Environmental issues Essay Example for Free

Environmental issues Essay What ways has learning about new environmental issues changed the way of living sustainably? The knowledge of environmental issues has changed the way we live. We learn a lot from our past experiences. Environmental problems paved a way for scientific advancements. An example of this is the invention of alternative fuel in vehicles. Environmental issues help promote social networks among countries. Information technology improved our communication with other people. We learn about counter measures of certain environmental problems from them and in turn, we share our knowledge to them. In our everyday lives, we learn the importance of cleanliness and discipline. Throwing our garbage anywhere might start an epidemic and result to death of animals and plants as well as humans. What important information has the greatest impact on the way you think about the environment? How can you apply this knowledge in the future? The most important information that changed my way of thinking about the environment is the knowledge of Global Warming. Why? Well, among the biggest mistakes humans ever made was to cause the depletion of the ozone layer. Its effects are devastating yet there isn’t an effective way of stopping it. The knowledge of such issue will help save humanity. I may be the one to find a way to stop Global Warming in the future. Nevertheless, if only all will help in solving this problem, we might be able to find the most effective way of saving the environment, saving our own lives. Reference: Global warming. (n. d. ). Britannica Concise Encyclopedia. Retrieved March 02, 2007, from Answers. com Web site: http://www. answers. com/topic/global-warming

Principle-agent Problem in Shareholders and Managers

Principle-agent Problem in Shareholders and Managers This essay identifies the principle-agent problem between shareholders and managers. It also overlooks UKs corporate governance compared to Germany and Japan. Furthermore effectiveness of UKs system will be analyzed amid recommendations to reduce the vulnerability. Economic theory speculates that a firms goal is to capitalize on shareholders wealth; achievable with entrepreneurial firm since owners are managers. However, ownership nowadays is significantly diluted, with companies owned by large shareholder groups. This causes the separation of ownership and management which hinders the relationship between shareholders and managers; where managers replace shareholders interest with their own. This may be due to information asymmetry  [1]  where managers have the power to act in accordance to shareholder needs. This is known as the agency problem and is common in modern corporate. Under this theory the relationship is formed through a binding contract whereby principals (shareholders) appoint the agents (managers) to execute services with authority to make decisions. However such contracts are imperfect as the impracticality to include every action of the agent whose decisions has an impact on their and the principals benefits. Thus, self interested behaviour arises in organisations as the interest of both parties diverges, i.e. principals interest regards maximisation of shareholders wealth (profit maximisation) whereas agents interest lies in own utility maximisation (bonuses/promotion). Shareholders permit managers to run the firms assets; resulting in a conflict of interest. The fundamental problem therefore is to align the interests of both parties. Furthermore, principals expect board of directors to base their decisions on maximising equity value. However the board of directors expect managers to follow strategies that support their goals. This situation illustrates that shareholders have no direct input into the operation and therefore have no power to tell managers what to do. This issue arises because of the separation of ownership and control and therefore managers are able to pursue goals beneficial to them and unfavourable to shareholders. Overall, detachment between the two parties increases lack of goal congruence. The question arises as to why shareholders do not monitor management? There are three reasons why taking control causes difficulties. (1) Expensive to monitor managerial activities as obtaining information is difficult (2) disgruntled shareholders are unable to pose threats in order to reduce undesirable managerial behaviour i.e. hiring an outside member and (3) dispersed shareholders have an incentive to free ride. Keasy et al 1997 regards the above as economic costs to monitoring. These limitations pose problems for shareholder wealth since undesirable managerial actions takes place in the absence of control. Shareholders may introduce incentive packages which include profit related bonuses, performance, promotion incentives and encourage employees to buy shares which increase their wages, to encourage agents to make optimal effort. Due to the above problems, nations have developed systems which carry out independent monitoring and control of the firm in order to align the overall goal. OECD 1999 stated that corporate governance structure specifies the distribution of rights and responsibilities among different participants in the corporation, and spells out the rules and procedures for making decisions on corporate affairs. By doing this, it also provides the structure through which the company objectives are set, and the means of attaining those objectives and monitoring performance. In UK capital markets play a vital role where share prices advocates performance levels. Managements focus is to maximize shareholders wealth through the use of independent board of directors. The fear of takeover bids forces management to undergo effective actions. Approximately 50% of shares are held by institutional investors indicating dominant ownership. Cadbury Report 1992 states large proportion of shareholder ownership influence companys actions. In 2008 the Financial Reporting council developed the Combined Code i.e. various reports/codes pertaining good corporate governance. The most influential is Cadbury Report 1992  [2]  , was produced as the lack of monitoring management activities caused several scandals whereby executives acted in their interest. Initially, Polly Peck  [3]  went into liquidation after years of false accounting leading to scrutinizing of the financial aspects and accountability. However after the scams of BCCI and Robert Maxwell, they revised the relationship between boards, auditors and shareholders. The final report states CEOs and Chairmans of companies should be separated. Jenson 1993  [4]  states that if roles were mutual, conflict of interest would arise. Furthermore, 3 non-executive directors, two of whom should be independent  [5]  and an audit committee involving non-executives should be included. Companies were encouraged to follow these practises alongside the code of best practise which outlines other areas of concern. However the one size fits all problem was recognised by Cadbury causing all companies registered in UK to follow the comply or explain system. Companies should comply with corporate best practise or have legitimate reasons for non-compliance. Furthermore, the board must offer a full explanation to shareholders and explicate how their practises are consistent with shareholders. Its acceptable only when shareholders believe good governance has been achieved. Greenbury committee, formed to evaluate directors remuneration packages and the lack of disclosure of payments in the annual reports, commenced over publics anger regarding increases in executive pay. The report added to the Cadbury Code and advised (1) each board include a remuneration committee involving independent non-executives briefing shareholders annually and (2) directors should have LT  [6]  performance related pay, all disclosed in the annual accounts. Moreover, progress should be reviewed every 3 years to ensure companies are operating effectively. The Hampel committee  [7]  formed in 1998 suggested all previous principles should be collaborated into a Combined Code. Furthermore, the chairman of the boards should act as the leader, investors should consider voting the share and all remunerations information including pensions should be disclosed. The Turnbull Committee, created the next year, advised that directors should be held accountable for internal financial and auditing controls. Several reports have contributed to the Combined Code namely the Higgs review outlining the actions of non-executives. More recently, after the collapse of Northern Rock and the financial crisis that followed, the Walker Review formed a report concerning banking sectors. The Financial Reporting Council produced a new Stewardship Code in 2010. Germanys corporate system is mainly stakeholder oriented and diffuses away from shareholders interests. The objective is maximising stakeholder value thereby revealing several distinctive differences. Firstly, the banking sector is a major stakeholder. Charkham (1994) stated that banks hold a dominate position in financing and supervising companies for numerous reasons. (1) During 1870 companies were heavily reliant on credit. Banks began offering LT loans to LT clients who tied the companies, obtaining ownership and acting as shareholders within industrial firms. (2) Banks hold 25% of voting capital in large corporations and 28% of seats on the supervisory boards. (3) Banks are shareholder representatives, authorised to vote for their shares plus proxy shares  [8]  , giving further control. Consequently companies are unlikely to face takeovers, since banks will support them through financial hardships unlike in the UK. Secondly, co-operative culture is articulated under the Co-determination Act 1976 whereby workers obtain significant roles in the management process; known as work councils. Work council staff influence business actions and partake in decision making processes. Employees (elected by work councils) sit on the supervisory board when a firm has more than 2000 employees alongside shareholder representatives. This system reduces workforce conflicts by improving communication channels, increase bargaining power of workers through legislations and finally correct market failures. Overall productivity levels increase, with low levels of strikes as better pay and conditions entailing good industrial relations. Finally, Germany involves a two tier board compared to UKs one tier board. It includes a management board (Vorstand) where managers monitor daily operation and conduct of the firm. Plus a supervisory board (Aufsichtsrat) involving only non-executives  [9]  who monitor the management board responsibilities and approving decisions. Separation of the two increases the awareness of individual responsibilities and helps prevent management abuse. The downfall is having worker representatives on the supervisory board as they will opt for decisions beneficial for employees rather than company. For example closing down a factory may deem good for the company however problematic for redundant employees, making it is difficult to work in the best interest of the company. Germanys corporate system lies heavily on good industrial relations which considers its company, employees and public. It shows corporations are a social institution rather than an economic one as it does not put financial value for shareholders at the top of the list of policy objectives  [10]  . Shareholders are seen as one of many stakeholders and not just a privileged constituency. The Japanese corporate governance revolves around banking relations like Germany along with life time employment. There are prominent features including the intervention of government and close alliances between government and companies. Business and industrial activities are monitored by the Japanese Ministry of Finance, involving them in the management and decision process. Japanese corporate rely on main banks  [11]  which are all interlinked with firms, forming a concentrated ownership (shareholders). Prowse 1992 states that individuals hold 26.7% of a firms equity while corporations hold 67.3%. Unlike western countries, Japanese banks can hold equities up to 5%. The argument is by acting as lenders and shareholders, conflict of interests of debt providers and equity will be eradicated. Moreover banks hold these equities for long periods, building a LT banking relationship unlike UKs transactional banking. Furthermore, they are involved with the internal management by obtaining seats on the board of directors. They actively contribute in the decision process and act as insurers for companies entering financial difficulties i.e. bankruptcy or takeovers. Like Germany, banks form LT contracts with companies based on financial services and supervision and act as representatives for other shareholders through proxy votes. One major distinction in Japan is the Keiretsu system. Companies form close alliances mainly between banks, businesses and the government, by working towards each other success. The role of the government became important when they intervened in 1990s as Japan suffered a recession. The government wanted to restore the economy through its policies and regulations by improving the corporate governance to stimulate growth and investment. Germany and Japan both work toward the interest of the company and workers as a collective. However Japans board structure is different as all members consist of former employees excluding outside directors apart from bank officials. The boards have more members than UK and Germany as some companies have over 60 directors. This proves very effective as no domination of directors occur. According to Allen and Gale (2000), focusing on stakeholders rather than solely on shareholders, societies resources are being used efficiently as employees, suppliers and customers are taken into account. This enhances productivity, thus generating higher profits, benefiting the firm and shareholders. Since 1990 the UK have implemented many policies reforming the management and governance of companies. These range from codes, reports, regulation and legislations; but how effective are they? To ensure company interests are aligned with shareholders, UK has imposed various committees to monitor the effectiveness. For example, audit committees review audits annually and overlook financial relationships between companies and auditors. Nomination committees administer human resources and plans future directors. Compensation committees examine management actions and daily operations. Moreover the existence of institutional investors has its advantages as investing in firms they have incentive and motivation to monitor them. This leads to high performance levels which reduces agency costs. However, companies practise ST  [12]  profit maximisation without LT planning making companies underperform, therefore investors sell their shares and exit rather than voice their discontent (occurs mainly in Germany). Overall UKs approach in monitoring company interest is effective as companies have majority of existing shareholders through the need of committees. The Code of best practice gives shareholders confidence that companies are operating with high levels of transparency during decision making processes. From this, the comply or explain system was created, whereby some freedom is left for companies to make effective decisions. The gains from this is that (1) managers and shareholders follow the LT interest of both the company and owners (2) distinguishes the culture barrier individual firms face since there are different levels, size and ownership of companies, whereas code of best practice instils one size fits all rule. Moreover, codes are more effective than regulations as companies can grow whereas enforcing strict internal controls companies are limited to procedures. Furthermore, codes tackle more softer problems relating to best practise compared to regulations i.e. training and supporting directors in their role. The Cadbury Report reflects the above whereby The effectiveness with which boards discharge their responsibilities determines Britains competitiveness position. They must be free to drive their companies forward, but exercise that freedom within a framework of effective accountability. This is the essence of any system of good corporate governance. For this system to work effectively shareholders require full disclosure to facilitate them in their decisions and having rights when dissatisfied. Consequently companies must disclose information in their annual reports stating how they have applied the combined code and giving shareholders voting rights to discharge directors. All these requirements are set out under the company law making the system successful since it was adopted in EC  [13]  and included in the EUD  [14]  in 2006; outlining same principles. Empirical evidence show that UK has drawn close to the concept of good corporate governance. According to the FTSE ISS Corporate Governance Index and Governance Metrics International Reports, the UK has the highest average governance score out of all the countries. Moreover 94%  [15]  of UK pension Funds considered corporate standards in the UK has developed exceptionally. The following reforms revolve around two primary issues (1) lack of separation of management and control and (2) dilemma faced by non-executive directors in terms of monitoring. Accordingly UKs current reforms indicated the need for independent non-executive directors to minimise conflicts otherwise present. However, the disadvantage regarding this independence is, there is less incentive to spend a sufficient amount of time controlling company issues because they have no direct relationship with the company. In addition, doubts on how much knowledge they acquire also poses a problem. One possible pivotal solution that could be incorporated into UK governance is increasing the frequency and duration of board meetings. Company information is very broad and complex especially relating to LT financial performances, competitive position and organisational structure. Therefore it is vital that directors assign more time to assess the information and deem upon past decisions and events. It is recommended that directors meet on a monthly basis for continual supervision and allow directors to address all areas and ask specific questions that affect the future of the company. There are issues surrounding this proposal for example, preparation, however the more frequent the meetings the less time needed to prepare as oppose to the time needed for meetings held every quarter. Moreover, meetings should not be limited to a time schedule but rather should last until all aspects are covered. This method is very flexible for example meetings could last more than one day when a co mpany is in a difficult situation. The advantage is that opinions will be shared more openly and allows non-executive directors to be more involved; this should be carried when discussing the long term corporate strategy. Another solution is altering the composition of the board. In the Combined Code section A.3.2 it pronounces that at least half the board, excluding the Chairman, should comprise non-executive directors determined by the board to be independent. This does not specify the maximum number of seats in total. Therefore it is advisable that the fewer directors, the more likely that each director can play a dynamic and imperative role. The recommended number should consist of eight to ten directors in total. This is so that there is enough variety and sufficient array of viewpoints. When there are more than ten or twelve members on the board, there will be a free rider problem where some directors will stop preparing for meetings and rely on the work of others resulting in topics not being discussed in depth. Finally UK should consider adding a supervisory board like Germany and Japan as this will allow wider diversity among the decision making processes. Moreover it will reduce abuses from dominate directors since there is constant revision of management performance. Overall UK should cease to improve existing polices and the challenge lies in keeping UKs corporate governance an asset rather than a liability for companies.

Free College Essays - Self-discovery in Shes Come Undone by Wally Lamb :: Shes Come Undone

She's Come Undone: Self-discovery  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Throughout She's Come Undone, Wally Lamb emphasizes the importance of self-discovery to one's life. Dolores has several epiphanies throughout the course of the novel, including her realization that all of her failed relationships are not solely her fault. She learns she is worth loving and is capable of surviving on her own. With each discovery about herself, Dolores learns to love herself a little more and blame herself a little less. Dolores' first realization is a sub-conscious one. Right before she tries to commit suicide she telephones her mother's childhood friend Geneva (Lamb 249). This is a cry for help and is her first step towards recovery. Dolores' next discovery comes after a long period of therapy, paid for by Geneva. Dolores' therapist, Dr. Shaw, attempts to rewrite her childhood from the time she was in the womb on. He takes on the role of her mother (268). As her negative childhood memories are replaced by positive ones, Dolores gains a new sense of self-esteem and confidence. She loses all of her extra weight (269). Dolores funnels her energy into creative pursuits like Etch-A-Sketching rather than self-destructive behavior. Eventually she is able to leave Dr. Shaw's care and go into the real world to provide for herself (283). Perhaps Dolores leaves the care of Dr. Shaw too soon. Shortly after getting her own apartment she begins dating Dante. Ashamed of her past, she creates a fictional life story for herself. She lives a lie the whole time she is living with Dante. She writes to her grandmother and falsely describes her marriage. When she catches Dante sleeping with one of his students, she finally wakes up. She realizes that no man is worth the pain of losing her identity, and she also realizes that her identity cannot be defined by the man she is with. After her grandmother's death she finally reveals her true self to Dante. In frustration and anger she tells him all of the events of her past, from her weight problems to her rape to her time spent in a mental institution. She feels completely free for the first time. Dolores' final stage of self-discovery comes with her relationship with Thayer. She realizes that he is what she has truly wanted for her entire life. It is the first time she has found luck and happiness in love.

Oedipus The King-a Tangled Web :: Oedipus Rex, Sophocles

The choir represents the voice of the people, the voice of the masses. People often conform to this uniform truth, they want to be like other people. This conformation leads to a uniform voice from the public. This voice is often ignorant to the truth, seemingly to the point that it creates its own truth. This is seen often in Oedipus the King, by Sophocles. They believe that Oedipus is godly, even when they have found out that he is the cause of their plague. It is not until the end that their haze of false truth clears, and they turn against Oedipus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The idea that the people speak with a unified voice is seen whenever they speak. Never does one individual stray from this one voice. This is seen in the Strophes and Antistrophes, the choir speaks as a whole. At the start of the, the choir shows unquestioning faith in Oedipus. They believe that he is godly, that since he ended the Sphinx’s reign of terror, that he would stop the plague. They believed this without question, they had no doubts that Oedipus would find a cure. They even came to Oedipus with “olive boughs all wreathed in woe,'; the same way one would go to a altar when they wanted something urgently. This shows their faith in Oedipus.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  This faith blinds them to the truth. When they find out that it could be Oedipus that is the cause of the plague, they still follow Oedipus blindly. They do not see the truth, they create their own. They become so deeply entwined in their own web of falls truths, that they do not realize what is really happening. They do not believe the Oracle, “Show me the man speaking stone from Delphi damned'; shows their disbelief in the oracle. This further reinforces their false truths, their blind faith toward Oedipus. Eventually this haze of false truths clears, and they see reality.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Even when they are confronted with the truth, they follow Oedipus. When Oedipus is pondering whether or not he could have killed King Laius, they encourage Oedipus. “But wait until you’ve heard the witness speak. Have hope,'; this shows their faith in Oedipus. “Your Laius prophecies are turned to lies'; shows their belief in the oracle. They feel he is lying, and continue their praise of Oedipus. This belief does not last forever, the web of false truths dissipates, and they see Oedipus for who he really is.

Extracurricular Activities

Contents 1. Introduction†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 3 2. Literature Review†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 4 3. Survey Findings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 10 4. Analysis of Data†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦15 5. Conclusion†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. 17 6. References†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. 18 Effect of Extracurricular Activities on Academic Performance at NSU Introduction Music, volunteer work, community service, sports, debating, etc—all of these have an influence on how university students perform academically.The way students choose to spend their free time can affect their academic performance; it is not simply traditional in-class instruction that impacts academic achievement. â€Å"A study by the U. S. Department of Education revealed that students who participate in co-curricular activities are three times more likely to have a grade point average of 3. 0 or better† than students who do not participate in co-curricular activities (Stephens & Schaben, 2002, para. ). In addition to co-curricular or extracurricular activities, â€Å"analyses revealed that regardless of students’ background and prior achievement, various parenting, volunteering, and home learning activities positively influenced student grades† (Simon, 2001, para. 1). Numerous studies have examined the factors influencing students’ academic achievement, and many activities were found to have a significant influence.According to BUGS (Bringing Up Girls in Science), a program for young girls and their parents at the University of North Texas, â€Å"the home environment is among the most important influences on academic performance† (Bringing Up Girls in Science, 2003, para. 2). A correlation appears to exist between the activities that students choose outside of the classroom and their academic performance. One of the main controversies is the effect that television viewing of students has on their academic achievement. â€Å"The relationship between cognitive development and television viewing has been the one most widely studied.Investigators disagree about the effects of this relationship† (Shin, 2004, para. 2). The amount and quality of television viewing and family involvement are not the only influences of academic performance. The effects of music and sports are also controversial in their relation to academic performance. University Deans are interested in the relationship between academic achievement and participation in interscholastic sports at university level these days implying that sports do have some sort of influence on how students perform academically.All of these activities appear to have some sort of effect on students’ academic performance; however, the issue of whether they benefit or hinder is unknown. The research would be described as a descriptive study because it observes behaviors â€Å"as they occur naturally, describes behav ior, explores a phenomenon, and tests hypotheses about behavior† (Brown, Cozby, Kee, & Worden, 1999, p. 75). Therefore, the purpose of this study is to determine whether or not the club activities that students of North South University (where I study currently) take part in have an effect on their academic performance.I believe that extracurricular activities (club activities) have a positive effect on a student’s academic performance at NSU. | | | | Literature Review The History of Extracurricular Activities The development of extracurricular activities was slow in the beginning, with many seeing it simply as a fad that would pass and quickly fade out of style (Millard, 1930, p. 11). One of the early philosophies behind extracurricular activities was that they should, wherever at all possible, â€Å"grow out of curricular activities and return to curricular activities to enrich them† (Millard, 1930, p. 2). Eventually people, including educators, began to see th e benefits of extracurricular activities, but it took a while to inure themselves to them. In fact, before 1900, educators were skeptical of participation in extracurricular activities, believing that â€Å"school should focus solely on narrowly defined academic outcomes. Non-academic activities were viewed as being primarily recreational and therefore were detrimental to academic achievement, and consequently were discouraged† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 5).Deam and Bear, early experts on extracurricular activities, said, â€Å"Extracurricular activities supplement and extend those contacts and experiences found in the more formal part of the program of the school day† (Millard, 1930, p. 16). It was not until recently that â€Å"educational practitioners and researchers have taken a more positive perspective, arguing that extracurricular activities may have positive effects on life skills and may also benefit academic accomplishments† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002 , para. 5). It is obvious that extracurricular activities have an impact on academic performance and education ever since their inception.The question is, how are extracurricular activities affecting academic performance today? Extracurricular Activities and Academic Performance Numerous studies have been conducted concerning the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance. Total extracurricular activity participation (TEAP), or participation in extracurricular activities in general, is associated with an improved grade point average, higher educational aspirations, increased college attendance, and reduced absenteeism† (Broh, 2002, para. 8).Guest and Schneider (2003), in looking at the previous research on this subject said, â€Å"Researchers have found positive associations between extracurricular participation and academic achievement† (para. 2). Although researchers agree that extracurricular activities do, in fact, influence academic pe rformance, the specific effect that various activities produce is debated. One study, conducted by the National Educational Longitudinal Study, found that â€Å"participation in some activities improves achievement, while participation in others diminishes achievement† (Broh, 2002, para. ). Many extracurricular activities have proven to be beneficial in building and strengthening academic achievement, even if the activities are not obviously related to academic subjects (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 9). â€Å"A number of studies revealed that students participating in extracurricular activities did better academically than students who did not participate† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 7). Researchers have particularly studied the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance in adolescents.One study found that â€Å"adolescents who participated in extracurricular activities reported higher grades, more positive attitudes toward school, an d higher academic aspirations† (Darling, Caldwell, & Smith, 2005, para. 1). Darling, Caldwell, and Smith (2005) conducted a longitudinal study concerning extracurricular activities and their effect on various aspects of development, including academic performance. A survey containing a list of twenty different extracurricular activities was distributed to students; they were asked to check which extracurricular activities they participated in that year.Demographic questions, such as their favorite activity, gender, and ethnicity were asked in order to take the social factors and influences into account when calculating the results. The students were also asked what their academic goals were and their grade point average. The results showed that the students who participated in school-based extracurricular activities had higher grades, higher academic aspirations, and better academic attitudes than those who were not involved in extracurricular activities at all (Para. 3-35). S ocial Influences of Extracurricular Activities and Academic Performance Numerous studies indicate that extracurricular activities do, in fact, promote academic performance in students. However, are the extracurricular activities themselves, regardless of outside or social influences, responsible for this impact on academic performance? Guest and Schneider (2003) conducted research on what influence various social factors had on the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance.They found that most of the studies previously conducted on the relationship between these two factors had not taken into account the meaning that participation in extracurricular activities â€Å"[held] for individual participants within distinct social contexts† (Para. 3). They believed that every school and community assigned certain values to the various activities, putting more importance on some over others. The value that is placed on each activity affects the relations hip between that specific activity and academic performance (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. ). Guest and Schneider (2003) concluded that there are three factors which influence this relationship. These factors are the â€Å"what,† the â€Å"where,† and the â€Å"when† (Para. 7). The â€Å"what† suggests that â€Å"the type of participation or activity undertaken influences developmental outcomes† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 8). The â€Å"where† suggests â€Å"that the school and community context in which extracurricular activity takes place matters† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 9).Finally, the â€Å"when† suggests â€Å"that the developmental and historical context in which extracurricular participation takes place influences both how it is valued and its effects on subsequent development† (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 10). All three of these factors work together to influence the relationship between participa tion in extracurricular activities and academic performance, because each one places a different value both on activities and academics. Formal Versus Informal Extracurricular Activities Some researchers have divided extracurricular activities into informal and formal activities.The formal activities include activities which are relatively structured, such as participating in athletics or learning to play a musical instrument. Informal activities, on the other hand, also known as leisure activities, include less structured activities, such as watching television. Some literature on leisure studies has â€Å"suggested that formal and informal activity settings have different influences on motivation and feelings of competence,† two factors which influence academic performance (Guest & Schneider, 2003, para. 8).One study found â€Å"that more time in leisure activities was related to poorer academic grades, poorer work habits, and poorer emotional adjustments,† while mor e time in â€Å"structured groups and less time watching TV were associated with higher test scores and school grades† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 15). Guest and Schneider (2003), in their study, found that â€Å"the type of participation or activity undertaken influences developmental outcomes (Para. 8). This involves the â€Å"what† factor and is the concern of this research project.There have been many studies conducted on the influence that extracurricular activities have on academic performance. Their effects have â€Å"differed substantially for different activities. There were a total of seventy-six statistically significant effects, fifty-eight positive and eighteen negative† (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, para. 11). The Relationship Between Volunteer Work and Academic Performance A dearth of literature on the relationship between volunteering and academic achievement exists; nevertheless, it is becoming more popular in academic settings as a way of improv ing academics, as well as society.Many schools now require their students to complete a mandatory number of hours of volunteer work per year or semester. Schools have implemented â€Å"service learning,† which incorporates community service and volunteer work into the curriculum, because it has been proven to have a positive effect on academic performance (Hinck & Brandell, 1999). Service learning â€Å"can and does have a positive impact on the psychological, social, and intellectual development of adolescents who participate† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 11).Usually the services performed are related, in some way, to some academic subject, but most forms of volunteer work and community service can be tied to academics in one way or another. As a result, â€Å"more and more studies are finding that increased academic growth is the result when service is combined with intellectual content† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 17). One study, conducted on over 2,000 students enrolled in kindergarten through twelfth grade, found that student performance improved as a result of service learning (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 17).The Texas Council of Chief State School Officers reported that â€Å"involvement in service learning affects students’ higher level thinking skills, motivation to learn, application of learning, insight, and basic academic skills† (Hinck & Brandell, 1999, para. 18). One study performed to determine the relationship between academic performance and community partnerships found that â€Å"regardless of students’ background and prior achievement, volunteering activities positively influenced student grades, course credits completed, attendance, behavior, and school preparedness† (Simon, 2001, para. 1).All of the literature concerning the relationship between academic performance and volunteering presented a positive relationship. (Citied in Fujita, 2005) Survey Findings Figure 1 Figure 2 Figure 3 Figure 4 Figure 5 Figure 6 Figure 7 Figure 8 Figure 9 Figure 10 Figure 11 Analysis of Data When asked whether their CGPA improves when they are actively involved with club activities and events, eighty percent members of North South University Social Services Club, sixty percent members of North South University Sports Club and eighty percent members of North South University Shangskritik Shanghatan responded with ‘no’.They also answered ‘negative’ when asked what kind of effect their chosen extracurricular activity has on their academic performance in the same percentages. This clearly shows that the majority of the members of these three clubs feel that they perform poor in their academics when they are involved with club works. The activities of the club, although it may provide satisfaction to the active members, it does not help them with their studies. The courses they take at NSU have no relation with the activities of the club.Therefore, they get ex hausted after doing the activities of the club and do not get time to concentrate on their studies. And also, since the activities of these three clubs have no relation with the courses offered at NSU, it does not help them with their academics in any way. However, a totally different picture can be seen when the responses of the active members of Young Economists’ Forum (YEF) and North South University English Club are analyzed. Here, it should be mentioned that all the members who filled up the questionnaires from these two clubs were from the Economics and English departments respectively.Although it is not mandatory for the members of YEF to be from the economics department and for the members of English club to be from the English department, my sample included all YEF members from the Economics department and all English Club members from the English department. So, this is one of the major reasons for eighty percent of YEF members and sixty percent of English Club memb ers to respond with ‘yes’ when asked whether their CGPA improves when they are actively involved with club activities.Respectively, they also answered ‘positive’ with the same percentage when asked what kind of influence their chosen ECA has on their academic performance. This shows that since the extracurricular activities chosen by the members of YEF and English Club from the selected sample are related to their field of study at NSU, they feel their CGPA improves and that the activities have a positive effect on their academic performance. Finally, when the CGPA of the total sample is analyzed, it can be seen that sixty percent of the total sample have a bad CGPA between 1. 05 and 3. 00.The rest forty percent have a very good CGPA between 3. 01 and 3. 97. The students with good CGPA belong to clubs which organize activities related to the student’s academics. This further strengthens the argument that students who are involved in club activities w hich complements their studies perform well in their studies than those students whose club activities are unrelated to their academics. Conclusion From the conducted survey, it can be concluded that my hypothesis is partially proved correct. Extracurricular activities in the form of club activities do have a positive effect on a student’s academic performance at NSU.However, the club activity must be related to the courses taken by the students or their field of study. It helps the students perform better in their academics and score better grades if the club activities they are involved in helps broaden the students’ knowledge about his chosen field of study at NSU. If students’ choose to become a member of a club whose activities have no relation with their academics, although they may become very skilled at those activities but this will hamper their study, and their academic performance will go down in the form of a low CGPA.All being said and done, student s should not base their decision of getting involved in club activities or participating in any other extracurricular activity from the findings of this study. This research is only a small attempt to find out the relationship between extracurricular activities and academic performance at NSU. Students should set their priorities themselves and choose their extracurricular activity accordingly or choose them according to their interests. They have the liberty to do so as they are mature adults.However, it would be wise if students chose their extracurricular activities carefully. At the end of the day, academic performance matters the most. NSU’s reputation depends on the quality of the students who study here. If NSU is filled with active ‘clubbers’ who are very good at their club activities but poor in studies then NSU’s reputation will go down in the eyes of all who see NSU as a place of quality higher education. References Bringing Up Girls in Science. (2003). Bugs—parents (University of North Texas). Retrieved February 26, 2005, from http://www. oe. unt. edu/bugs/parents. index. html Broh, B. A. (2002, January). Linking extracurricular programming to academic achievement: Who benefits and why? [Electronic version]. Sociology of Education, 75, 69-96. Brown, K. W. , Cozby, P. C. , Kee, D. W. , & Worden, P. E. (1999). Research methods in human development. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield Publications. Darling, N. , Caldwell, L. L. , & Smith, R. (2005). Participation in school-based extracurricular activities and adolescent adjustment [Electronic version].Journal of Leisure Research, 37, 51-77. Fujita, K. (2005). The Effects of Extracurricular Activities on the Academic Performance of Junior High Students [Electronic version]. Undergraduate Research Community. Available at http://kon. org/urc/v5/fujita. html Guest, A. , & Schneider, B. (2003, April). Adolescents’ extracurricular participation in context: The mediating effe cts of schools, communities, and identity [Electronic version]. Sociology of Education, 76, 89-105. Hinck, S. S. , & Brandell, M.E. (1999, October). Service learning: Facilitating academic learning and character development [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 83, 16-25. Marsh, H. W. , & Kleitman, S. (2002). Extracurricular activities: The good, the bad, and the nonlinear [Electronic version]. Harvard Educational Review, 72, 464-512. Millard, C. V. (1930). The organization and administration of extra curricular activities. New York: A. S. Barnes and Co. Shin, N. (2004, December).Exploring pathways from television viewing to academic achievement in school age children [Electronic version]. The Journal of Genetic Psychology, 165, 367-382. Simon, B. S. (2001, October). Family involvement in high school: Predictors and effects [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 85, 8-20. Stephens, L. J. , & S chaben, L. A. (2002, March). The effect of interscholastic sports participation on academic achievement of middle level school activities [Electronic version]. National Association of Secondary School Principals Bulletin, 86, 34-42.